Magnitude and extent of gambling disorder in the Mexican population / Magnitud y extensión del juego patológico en la población mexicana

Abstract: Introduction: Gambling disorder is characterized by an uncontrollable need to gamble, lack of control over gambling, prioritizing gambling over other activities, and continuing to gamble despite the negative consequences this entails. Worldwide, between .1% and 5% of people show signs of problem gambling and between .1% and 2.2% present a positive result in gambling disorder criteria. Objective: To determine the extent of the problem of gambling disorder in Mexico and to identify and analyze the demographic groups in which it occurs. Method: ENCODAT 2016-2017 is a probabilistic, multi-stage survey with national and state representativeness. The sample comprises 56 877 people who answered a standardized questionnaire that collects information on addictive substance use and other areas such as gambling disorder. Results: A total of 24.5% of the population aged 12 to 65 have played a betting game at lifetime. Men have higher statistically significant prevalences than women in nearly all types of gambling and in six of the nine symptoms of gambling disorder. In Mexico, .3% of the target population meet the criteria for gambling disorder, with adolescents showing the highest percentage (.4%). Discussion and conclusion: It is necessary to reinforce public policies for this issue that include the development of preventive actions targeting the adolescent and youth population in Mexico, and to ensure the adequate monitoring of authorized centers.

Resumen: Introducción: El juego patológico se caracteriza por la necesidad incontrolable de jugar, la falta de control sobre el juego, la prioridad de jugar sobre otras actividades y de continuar jugando a pesar de las consecuencias negativas. A nivel mundial, entre .1% y el 5% de las personas muestra señales de juego problemático y del .1% al 2.2% presenta un resultado positivo en los criterios de juego patológico. Objetivo: Conocer la extensión del problema del juego patológico en México e identificar y analizar los grupos demográficos en los que se presenta. Método: La ENCODAT 2016-2017 es una encuesta probabilística y polietápica con representatividad nacional y estatal. La muestra fue de 56 877 personas, las cuales contestaron un cuestionario estandarizado que recaba información sobre consumo de sustancias adictivas y otras áreas como el juego patológico o ludopatía. Resultados: El 24.5% de la población de 12 a 65 años ha jugado algún juego de azar alguna vez en la vida. Los hombres presentan prevalencias estadísticamente significativas más altas que las mujeres en casi todos los tipos de juegos y en 6 de los 9 síntomas de juego patológico. En el país, el .3% de la población objetivo cumple con los criterios para juego patológico, y los adolescentes muestran el mayor porcentaje (.4%). Discusión y conclusión: Es necesario reforzar políticas públicas sobre el tema que incluyan el desarrollo de acciones preventivas dirigidas a la población adolescente y joven del país, así como incidir en el monitoreo adecuado de los centros autorizados.

Contextual factors associated with marijuana use in school population / Factores contextuales asociados con el consumo de marihuana en población estudiantil

Abstract Introduction Marijuana use among the student population has increased in Mexico and Latin America. There are social, interpersonal and individual factors associated with the onset and continuation of marijuana use. These include the availability of drugs in the community, opportunity for use, low perceived risk of harm from marijuana use and social tolerance by family and close friends. Moreover, these factors increase the probability of experimenting with other drugs, polysubstance use and dependence. Objective To identify the relationship between the level of urbanization, drug availability, exposure to opportunity for use, risk perception and social tolerance of the level of marijuana use among Mexican middle and high school students. Method The results are drawn from various surveys conducted in Mexico City and the National Survey of Drug Use among Students 2014. A total of 114 364 middle and high school students participated (49.8% boys and 50.2% girls). Results Of the respondent 10.6% had used marijuana at least once (12.9% boys and 8.4% girls). The variables that predicted higher marijuana use were drug use approval by family and best friend,, the level of urbanization and low risk perception. Discussion and conclusion Action must be taken on the factors mentioned to decrease the availability and use of drugs in the environment, and raise awareness of their consequences. These elements must be introduced systematically and creatively into preventive programs in this area.

Resumen Introducción El consumo de mariguana en población estudiantil se ha incrementado en México y América Latina. Existen factores sociales, interpersonales e individuales asociados con el inicio y la continuación de su consumo. Entre ellos encontramos la disponibilidad de drogas en la comunidad, la oportunidad de consumo, la baja percepción de riesgo por consumir mariguana, la tolerancia social de la familia y la de los amigos cercanos. Además, estos factores aumentan la probabilidad de experimentar con otras drogas, ser policonsumidor y producir dependencia. Objetivo Conocer la relación entre el nivel de urbanización, la disponibilidad de drogas, la exposición a la oportunidad de consumo, la percepción de riesgo y la tolerancia social con el nivel de consumo de mariguana en los estudiantes mexicanos de secundaria y bachillerato. Método Los resultados parten de diversas encuestas realizadas en la Ciudad de México y de la Encuesta Nacional de Consumo de Drogas en Estudiantes 2014. Participaron 114 364 alumnos de secundaria y bachillerato (49.8% hombres y 50.2% mujeres). Resultados El 10.6% consumieron mariguana alguna vez (12.9% hombres y 8.4% mujeres). Las variables predictoras de un mayor consumo de mariguana fueron la tolerancia ante el consumo de drogas de la familia y del mejor amigo, el nivel de urbanización y una baja percepción de riesgo. Discusión y conclusión Es necesario incidir en los factores señalados con objeto de disminuir la disponibilidad y el consumo de drogas en el entorno, así como en el conocimiento real de sus consecuencias. Estos elementos deben introducirse sistemática y creativamente en los programas preventivos del área.

Relación entre supervisión parental y conducta antisocial en menores infractores del Estado de Morelos / Relationship between parent supervision and anti-social behavior in juvenile offenders from the state of Morelos

Resumen: INTRODUCCIÓN: La supervisión parental comprende: cuidado de los hijos, conocimiento de su paradero y actividades y adaptación. Para que ésta se dé es necesario que exista comunicación y apoyo entre padres e hijos, de manera que el ambiente familiar sea agradable. Por otro lado, se ha encontrado que la inconsistencia o ausencia de ésta es un factor de riesgo de la conducta antisocial y, en casos más graves, de delincuencia en los hijos. OBJETIVO: Conocer cuál es la relación que existe entre el ambiente familiar, la supervisión parental y la gravedad de la conducta antisocial en menores infractores. MÉTODO: La población estuvo conformada por menores infractores de un Centro Tutelar del Estado de Morelos. El instrumento se aplicó a 86 hombres. RESULTADOS: La comunicación del hijo fue un predictor de: 1. el manejo de reglas y conocimiento de pares, y 2. el conocimiento de las actividades del hijo. Esto último es lo que predice de manera significativa la gravedad de la conducta antisocial. DISCUSIÓN Y CONCLUSIÓN: De acuerdo con los hallazgos, es importante que exista un ambiente familiar basado en la comunicación y el apoyo, que fomente una comunicación más libre de los adolescentes con sus padres, de manera que la supervisión parental se consiga más fácilmente. Esto ayudará para que los jóvenes no se involucren en comportamientos que los puedan llevar a delinquir.

Abstract: INTRODUCTION: Parental supervision is constituted by a series of correlated parental behaviors involving children care, knowing their where abouts, which activities they are performing, and the situation of their adaptive processes. In order for parental supervision to take place, it is necessary that communication and mutual support exist between mother and father, as well as between parents and children so that the family environment becomes pleasant. Supervision is one of the most studied factors related to anti-social behavior, and it has been observed that its absence or inconsistency allows for the occurrence of anti-social behavior, which in the more serious cases leads to delinquency. OBJECTIVE: To know the relationship between family environment, supervision and the seriousness of anti-social behavior in juvenile offenders confined in a state penitentiary from Morelos. METHOD: A survey was used to collect data from a population of 86 juvenile male offenders from a state penitentiary located in Morelos. RESULTS: Parent-children communication and support are interrelated and form the familiar environment. Thus, children's communication predicts proper supervision and monitoring, specifically in the area of knowing children's activities, which, at the same time, predict less serious anti-social behavior. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: It is important that families have an environment based on communication and support. It is also relevant to encourage adolescents to freely communicate with their parents so supervision and monitoring become common elements that help adolescents to stay away from behaviors that could lead them to crime.

Estilos de afrontamiento a la "obsesión mental por beber" (craving) en bebedores en proceso de recuperación / Coping styles to "obsession for drinking" (craving) for alcoholics in recovery process

Antecedentes: En el alcoholismo, el tema del craving es un asunto controvertido. Sin embargo, se sabe que, si un alcohólico puede hablar del suceso en sus propios términos, aumenta la probabilidad de lograr un afrontamiento exitoso y evitar una recaída. No obstante, se conoce muy poco acerca de dicho afrontamiento y aún menos cuando se alude a él con términos propios del bebedor.Objetivo: Conocer el afrontamiento de la "obsesión mental por beber", expresión que suelen utilizar los miembros de Alcohólicos Anónimos (AA) para hablar de las reacciones características del craving.Método: La muestra incluyó a 192 individuos que habían participado en AA durante 10 años en promedio (DE=7.5 años). Se aplicó un instrumento empírico para medir el afrontamiento (Kr=.86). Se utilizó un conglomerado de dos fases para establecer perfiles.Resultados: El análisis encontró cinco estilos de afrontamiento: 1. evadir situaciones inductoras al tiempo que se busca una solución (evasivo-activo); 2. evadir retrayéndose (evasivo-pasivo); 3. mostrar sentimientos de enojo y no hacer nada (emocional-pasivo); 4. recordar y comparar la vida pasada como alcohólicos activos (revalorativo) y 5. negar cualquier afrontamiento (negador).Discusión y conclusion: Los datos son preliminares, pero ofrecen la oportunidad de ampliar y especificar la forma en que ciertos alcohólicos de nuestro país solucionan un problema tan complejo como es el craving. El agrupamiento de respuestas supone esfuerzos o estilos de afrontar que pueden resultar o no efectivos para lograr una recuperación -por ejemplo, prevenir las recaídas en las personas que asisten a los grupos de AA-, por lo que plantea una importante perspectiva de investigación.

Background: Although craving is a controversial concept in alcoholism research, it is known that if an alcoholic can talk about the event using his own words, the probability of successful coping and prevention of relapse is bigger. However, little is known about such coping, and even less when it is articulated from the drinker's perspective.Objective: To identify the coping mechanism to this event that causes physical and emotional responses similar to those of craving, identified with the own language of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA).Method: The sample consisted of 192 individuals who participated in AA meetings for an average of ten years (SD=7.5). An empirical instrument was developed to measure coping (Kr=.86) and a two-phase conglomerate analysis was used to create categories to develop profiles.Results: The analysis showed five coping profiles suggesting that AA members cope with the event as follow: 1. evading but looking for a direct solution (elusive-active conglomerate), 2. evading but retracting (elusive-liabilities conglomerate), 3. getting upset and doing nothing (emotional-passive conglomerate), 4. remembering and comparing their past life (revalorative conglomerate), and 5. denying (denier conglomerate).Discussion and conclusion: Although the data are preliminary, they offer the opportunity to expand and specify how certain alcoholics solve a complex problem, such as craving. The information concurs with literature in the sense that this grouping of responses assumed those efforts that may be effective or not for the recovery process, for example, to prevent relapses in alcoholics who attend AA groups, so it raises an important research perspective.

Asociación del consumo de sustancias psicoactivas con el cuidado y la salud del adulto mayor / Association of psychoactive substances use with care and health of older adults

Antecedentes El consumo de alcohol, tabaco y otras drogas tiene repercusiones importantes en la vida diaria de los adultos mayores. Con el objeto de conocer la asociación entre consumo de sustancias psicoactivas y variables de cuidado y salud en adultos mayores. Método Se recopiló información de una muestra aleatoria del padrón de usuarios del IAAM-DF. 2098 personas aceptaron participar y fueron entrevistadas en sus hogares, su tasa de respuesta fue de 83.9%. Resultados y discusión Se encontró que 13.1% requiere de ayuda en actividades básicas e instrumentales de la vida diaria; 81.4% percibe poco apoyo social; 82.2% señala pertenecer a una familia disfuncional, y a 45.5% le ha sido diagnosticada una enfermedad crónico-degenerativa. Mediante razón de momios se determinó que el consumo riesgoso de alcohol y la dependencia de éste por adultos mayores incrementan en ellos el riesgo de padecer enfermedades crónico-degenerativas, infecciosas y trastornos mentales, e influyen en su necesidad de recibir apoyo en actividades básicas e instrumentales de la vida diaria , así como en su percepción de disfunción familiar. El consumo de tabaco aumentó el riesgo de padecer enfermedades crónico-degenerativas e infecciosas, y se asocia con la percepción de salud y apoyo familiar. La ingestión de alguna droga, ilegal o prescrita, no se asoció significativamente con variables de cuidado, pero sí impacta en la aparición de enfermedades crónico-degenerativas y de trastornos mentales. Los resultados muestran que el consumo de alcohol, tabaco y otras drogas influye en la salud y el cuidado de los adultos mayores en la Ciudad de México, por lo cual constituye una tarea urgente atender estas problemáticas para mejorar la calidad de vida de éstos.

Background The use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs have a significant impact on the daily lives of older adults. In order to study the relationship between substance use, health and care variables in older adults. Method Information was collected in a random sample of the registry users of the DF IAAM program; 2098 people agreed to participate and was interviewed in their homes, the response rate obtained was 83.9%. Results and discussion It was found that 13.1% receive aid in basic and instrumental activities of daily living, 81.4% perceived little social support, 82.2% perceived belonging to a dysfunctional family and 45.5% have been diagnosed with a chronic degenerative disease. Using odds ratios, it was shown that at-risk drinking and alcohol dependence increased the risk of chronic degenerative diseases, infectious and mental disorders and affects the need for support in basic and instrumental activities of daily living and perception of family dysfunction. Smoking increased risk of chronic degenerative and infectious diseases and also was associated with perceived health and family support. The use of any illegal or prescribed drugs was not significantly associated with care variables, but affect chronic degenerative diseases and mental disorders. The results of this study showed that use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs affect the health and care of older adults in Mexico City, so it is urgent to address these problems in order to improve their quality of life.

Tendencias del uso de drogas en la Ciudad de México: Encuesta de estudiantes, octubre 2012 / Drug use trends in Mexico City: 2012 students survey

Introducción Los estudios epidemiológicos en nuestro país muestran un incremento en el consumo de drogas ilegales y de alcohol. La edad de inicio también ha disminuido, especialmente en el consumo de alcohol. Por su parte, el consumo de inhalables se ha incrementado en forma importante, especialmente entre las mujeres jóvenes. Son diversos los factores asociados al consumo de drogas, pero de manera importante destacan el desarrollo de estrategias de resistencia, junto con sus habilidades sociales subyacentes, así como los estilos parentales de crianza. Método La presente es una encuesta probabilística en población escolar de secundarias y bachilleratos de la Ciudad de México que se levantó en noviembre del 2012, con representación a nivel de cada Delegación. La muestra fue de 26 503 alumnos. La información se obtuvo mediante un cuestionario estandarizado y validado en encuestas anteriores. Resultados El consumo de tabaco disminuyó significativamente (de 44.3% a 41.0%), el 32.9% de los adolescentes comenzó a utilizar tabaco antes de los 13 años. El 68.2% consumió alcohol alguna vez; en tanto que la edad de inicio promedio de consumo de esta sustancia se mantuvo en los 12.6 años. La prevalencia de consumo de drogas alguna vez aumentó de 21.5% a 24.4%. La mariguana es la droga de preferencia en la población estudiantil (15.9%). También se encontraron incrementos en la presencia de abuso sexual, mientras que el intento suicida disminuyó. Discusión Los resultados muestran el continuo crecimiento que tiene esta problemática, aunque los inhalables se mantuvieron constantes y el tabaco disminuyó de manera importante. Dado estos resultados, es una tarea preponderante dedicar más esfuerzos a la prevención con estudios e intervenciones evaluadas para preescolar y primaria, así como para los padres de familia y los maestros.

Introduction Epidemiological studies in our country show increases in the consumption of illegal drugs and alcohol. The age of onset has decreased, especially regarding alcohol use. Meanwhile, consumption of inhalants has increased significantly, especially among young women. There are several factors associated with drug use, but the development of resistance strategies, along with its underlying social skills and parenting styles, stand out in a significant way. Method Data comes from a probabilistic survey carried out in November 2012, with students from 7th to 12th school grades, in Mexico City, which was representative for each of its districts. The sample was 26 503 students. Information was obtained through a questionnaire standardized and validated in previous surveys. Results Tobacco consumption decreased significantly (44.3% to 41.0%); 32.9% of the adolescents began its use before age 13. Lifetime consumption of alcohol was 68.2%, while the average age of onset of cannabis use remained at 12.6 years. Lifetime prevalence of any drug use increased from 21.5% to 24.4%. Marijuana was the first drug of choice among students (15.9%). Increases were also found in sexual abuse rate, while suicide attempt decreased. Discussion Although inhalants use remained stable and tobacco use decreased significantly, results show the continued growth of drug use. Given this context, concentrating more efforts in prevention with studies and evaluated interventions for pre-school and elementary school students, as well as for parents and teachers, is a preponderant task.

La percepción de los adolescentes sobre el consumo de alcohol y su relación con la exposición a la oportunidad y la tentación al consumo de alcohol / Perception of adolescents about alcohol consumption and its relation to the exposure to opportunity and temptation for alcohol consumption

Introduction Alcohol is an endemic problem in our country. It affects mainly adolescents, and is associated with the availability and individual characteristics and context that favor the likelihood of experiencing, continue to use and move toward the problematic use and dependence. Substance use is also associated with being exposed to them and making decisions about their conduct towards the opportunity, so prevention may be more effective when you understand the mechanisms between the availability and behavior and exposure to opportunity and the temptation to consume. This work addresses these constructs in a group of adolescents using a qualitative approach and explores the perception of the constructs, their association with the use and the strategies used by adolescents to avoid consumption. Methodology The sample was composed by 60 adolescents, 30 experimentalists and 30 alcohol abusers, divided into six groups. Results The results show a clear identification and definition of constructs exposed to the opportunity and temptation to consume. Family parties and invitations are considered situations associated with exposure to the opportunity, and temptation consumption is associated with unpleasant emotions. In the coping strategies to avoid drinking, experimenters think about the consequences of consumption, in saying no, and in respecting the rules and decisions, while the abusers think of the fun and never refuse an invitation from a friend. Discussion Results are proposed for inclusion in models of prevention and care for specific populations.

El consumo de alcohol es un problema endémico en nuestro país. Afecta principalmente a los adolescentes y se asocia con la disponibilidad y con características individuales y del contexto que favorecen la probabilidad de experimentar, continuar usando y avanzar hacia el consumo problemático y la dependencia. El uso de sustancias también se relaciona con estar expuesto a ellas y tomar decisiones sobre su conducta frente a la oportunidad. Así, la prevención puede ser más efectiva cuando se comprenden los mecanismos intermedios entre la disponibilidad y la conducta como la exposición a la oportunidad y la tentación al consumo. Este trabajo aborda estos constructos en un grupo de adolescentes mediante una aproximación cualitativa y explora la percepción de los constructos, su asociación con el consumo y las estrategias que utilizan los adolescentes para evitar el consumo. Método La muestra se integró con 60 adolescentes, 30 experimentadores y 30 abusadores de alcohol, divididos en seis grupos. Los resultados muestran una clara identificación y definición de los constructos exposición a la oportunidad y tentación al consumo. Fiestas familiares e invitaciones son consideradas situaciones asociadas con la exposición a la oportunidad; y la tentación al consumo se asocia con emociones desagradables. En las estrategias de enfrentamiento para evitar el consumo, los experimentadores piensan en las consecuencias del consumo, en decir no y en respetar las reglas y decisiones; en tanto que los abusadores piensan en la diversión y nunca rechazarían la invitación de un amigo. Discusión A partir de los resultados se hacen propuestas para su incorporación en modelos de prevención y atención para poblaciones específicas.

Transferencia tecnológica en el área de adicciones: El programa de intervención breve para adolescentes, retos y perspectivas / Technology transfer in the field of addictions: The brief intervention program for adolescents challenges and prospects

Los conocimientos que proporciona la psicología deben dar respuesta a diferentes problemáticas, lo que sólo puede lograrse cuando los hallazgos obtenidos por evidencia científica son asequibles a otros grupos científicos, y núcleos sociales, a fin de que éstos logren apropiarse y usarlos para solucionar problemas, mejorar su calidad de vida o prevenir una situación potencial de riesgo. Sin embargo, con frecuencia se observan diferentes barreras para la utilización efectiva de los conocimientos. Además, se tiene la falsa impresión de que la investigación en las ciencias de salud resulta una actividad poco responsiva ante las necesidades de los actores sociales que podrían beneficiarse de su uso. En este contexto, en el presente artículo se presenta una revisión general del concepto de transferencia tecnológica, los modelos que se han desarrollado para llevar a cabo ésta y un ejemplo de cómo se ha iniciado la transferencia de un programa de intervención en el ámbito de las adicciones en México y cuáles son sus retos para el avance de dicho proceso y su posible adopción en centros de atención a las adicciones. Se concluye que, para cumplir con la incorporación de tratamientos en instituciones de atención de adicciones, hace falta evaluar la efectividad del programa de intervención breve en escenarios clínicos, cumplir con todos los indicadores CONSORT de los ensayos clínicos aleatorizados e integrar al proceso de transferencia cuatro aspectos principales: 1. propiciar un mayor acercamiento con los profesionales de la salud; 2. permitir la "reinvención" del programa dentro de un contexto de colaboración entre los actores involucrados y evaluar dicho proceso; 3. considerar limitaciones, recursos, objetivos y prácticas de la institución donde se pretende transferir el programa y 4. ofrecer seguimiento a largo plazo para evaluar el éxito de la adopción de la innovación.

The knowledge provided by psychology should respond to different problems, which can only be achieved when the findings from scientific evidence become available to other scientific groups and social nuclei, in order to achieve them appropriately and use them to solve problems, improve their quality of life, or prevent a potentially hazardous situation. However, various barriers to the effective use of knowledge are often observed. In addition, there exists the false impression that research in the health sciences is an activity that rarely meets the needs of the social actors who might benefit from its use. In this context, this paper presents a general overview of the concept of technology transfer, the models that have been developed to perform this and an example of how the transfer of an intervention program in the field of addictions in Mexico has been started and what the challenges are to advancing this process and its possible adoption in addiction centers. The authors conclude that in order to comply with the incorporation of treatments at addiction treatment institutions, it is essential to evaluate the effectiveness of the brief intervention program in clinical settings, adhere to all the CONSORT indicators for randomized clinical trials and incorporate four main aspects into the transfer process: 1. foster closer relations with health professionals; 2. allow the "reinvention" of the program within a context of collaboration between stakeholders and evaluate this process; 3. consider the constraints, resources, objectives and practices of the institution to which the program is to be transferred, and 4. provide long-term monitoring to assess the success of the adoption of the innovation.

Evaluación del sistema de salud mental en México: ¿hacia dónde encaminar la atención? / Evaluation of the mental health system in Mexico: where is it headed?

OBJETIVO: Evaluar algunos indicadores clave del sistema de salud mental mexicano utilizando el Instrumento de Evaluación para Sistemas de Salud Mental de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (IESM-OMS). MÉTODOS: La estrategia utilizada para responder a los indicadores del IESM-OMS incluyó: i) Revisión de fuentes documentales, ii) Aplicación de cuestionarios y iii) Trabajo grupal utilizando la técnica de consenso con expertos. Para facilitar la recopilación de la información, se elaboró un cuestionario donde los indicadores fueron transformados en preguntas sencillas. Asimismo, se capacitó a las personas encargadas de recabar los datos y se realizó un seguimiento de dicha actividad. RESULTADOS: Del total del presupuesto asignado a la salud, solo 2% estaba destinado a la salud mental y, de ese porcentaje, 80% se empleaba para el funcionamiento de los hospitales psiquiátricos. El eje de la atención de la salud mental se encontraba en el hospital psiquiátrico y existían muy pocas unidades de hospitalización psiquiátrica en los hospitales generales y establecimientos residenciales, así como servicios específicos para niños y adolescentes. El acceso estaba limitado por la centralización del sistema de atención, ya que la mayoría de los establecimientos se ubicaban en las grandes ciudades. Solamente 30% de los servicios de atención primaria contaban con protocolos de evaluación y tratamiento para trastornos mentales. Finalmente, en los establecimientos de salud mental, la tasa de psiquiatras, médicos, enfermeros y psicólogos por cada 100 000 habitantes registró valores de 1,6, 1,3, 3,4 y 1,5 respectivamente. CONCLUSIONES: Para reducir la brecha entre la carga que representan los trastornos mentales y el presupuesto asignado para su atención, se requiere de un mayor financiamiento y una utilización de los recursos más racional, considerando al primer nivel como el eje de la atención. Asimismo, será necesario ampliar el número de especialistas, capacitar periódicamente al personal en los primeros niveles de atención e incrementar la participación del resto de la sociedad.

OBJECTIVE: Evaluate some of the key indicators that characterize the Mexican mental health system using the World Health Organization's Assessment Instrument for Mental Health Systems (WHO-AIMS). METHODS: The strategy for examining the WHO-AIMS indicators included: (i) a review of documentary sources; (ii) application of the questionnaire; and (iii) group work with a team of experts using the consensus technique. To facilitate collection of the data, a questionnaire was prepared in which the indicators were turned into simple questions. The people gathering the data were trained, and the activity was monitored. RESULTS: It was found that, of the total budget for health, only 2% is allocated for mental health, and, of that share, 80% is used in the operation of psychiatric hospitals. The pivotal point for mental health care is in the psychiatric hospital; there are very few psychiatric units in the general hospitals, few residential establishments, and few services targeted specifically to care for children and adolescents. Access is limited because of the centralized health care system, with the majority of establishments located in the large cities. Only 30% of primary care services have protocols for the evaluation and treatment of mental disorders. Finally, in the mental health facilities, the ratios of psychiatrists, other physicians, nurses, and psychologists per 100 000 population are 1.6, 1.3, 3.4, and 1.5, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: More funding will be needed in order to bridge the gap between the mental health burden and the budget allocated for its care, and resources will need to be used more rationally, with the first level of care becoming the pivot. In addition, it will be necessary to increase the number of specialists, offer periodic in-service training for personnel at the first level of care, and enlist greater participation by the rest of society.

Los nuevos empresarios: Trayectoria del uso a la venta de drogas en contextos de fiesta / The new businessmen: Pathways from drug use to drug dealing in party contexts

Drugs use at party contexts has increased in recent decades. Drugs dealing facilitates consumer access to substances, whose sales practices vary according to drugs use, places for the consumption and the drug social function. Drug dealing is socially constructed from a set of practices ranging from reasons to dealing and those related to the consolidation as a common practice. The aim of this research was to describe and analyze the drugs users' experience in party contexts, about their dealer's construction process. An interpretative multiple-case study with the snowball technique was carried out to get the participants. The information was obtained by a semi-structured interview and nonparticipant observation at the dealing places. The information obtained points out the group's participation on the selection of the dealer as the initiation of drugs dealing, the extroversion features and communication skills as an important profile to be a dealer; specially, the capability to satisfy the group's emotional request through the drugs. Also, benefits as acceptation, protection and the warmth from the group and the economical earning. The dealer/businessmen consolidation is socially constructed according to the new identity assumed, the group participation and the specific activities as a business.

El uso de drogas en contextos de fiesta se ha incrementado en las últimas décadas. El narcomenudeo facilita el acceso a sustancias de consumo, cuyas prácticas de venta varían conforme a la droga de uso, los espacios de consumo y la función de la droga en los grupos que la consumen. La venta de drogas implica una serie de prácticas que la construyen y que incluyen los motivos del inicio de venta, el proceso de desarrollo y las relacionadas con la consolidación de la venta como práctica habitual. El objetivo de esta investigación fue describir y analizar la experiencia de usuarios de drogas en contextos de fiesta respecto al proceso en que se construyen como dealers. Para lo anterior, se realizó un estudio interpretativo de casos múltiples, empleando la técnica de "bola de nieve" para captar a los participantes. La observación se obtuvo por medio de una entrevista semiestructurada y la observación no participante en escenarios de venta. Se obtuvo información relacionada con los elementos del salto del uso a la venta como la elección del dealer por el grupo, su perfil para ser elegido como la extroversión y habilidades de comunicación; y sobre todo su capacidad para satisfacer la demanda de emociones de los miembros de su grupo por medio de las drogas de venta. Además, de la aceptación, protección y afecto del grupo y las ganancias económicas. La consolidación como dealer/empresario se construye conforme se asumen una nueva identidad, la participación del grupo y las actividades específicas de la empresa.

La búsqueda de moderación en el consumo de alcohol: Adaptación de los conocimientos a la práctica / Searching moderation in alcohol consumption adjusting knowledge to practice

Alcohol abuse in Mexico has an enormous impact on people's health. This problem has led authorities to undertake actions to combat and reduce both consumption levels and their consequences. The interventions, focusing on handling problem drinkers -people who already show symptoms of dependence and consume more than one drug, including alcohol-, have proved their effectiveness in various scenarios. In the work setting, this problem is no exception and has also been a focus of concern and the implementation of actions to prevent excess alcohol consumption and provide care for persons beginning to display problems. However, implementing programs in the workplace has proved complicated. Other countries have found that many programs are not correctly evaluated or simply not evaluated, making it impossible to determine their effectiveness in solving the problems for which they were designed. Moreover, the personnel that implement them are not properly trained, programs are expensive to implement, and conflicts of interest tend to arise. In Mexico, low-cost, effective actions have been implemented for this population. However, the time available for undertaking preventive activities is limited, while the length of workers' shifts means that they do not have enough time for these activities. One current challenge is the Translation of Research as a tool for the development of efficient, simpler, more practical, and safer interventions, without ignoring the discovery of new information regarding health and disease prevention, as well as creating more efficient treatments and improving existing ones. Within this perspective, researchers worked to produce a brief intervention to reduce harmful alcohol consumption among the working population. It is based on the principles of cognitive social theory put forward by Bandura, in which alcohol consumption is regarded as learned behavior, that causes problems and may be replaced by healthy behaviors, provided dependence has not developed. Another of the components included is motivational theory, according to which the effectiveness of a particular form of treatment is related to individuals' motivation to continue it. The aim of this article is to describe the process of translation of research, derived from the implementation of cognitive social and motivational theories to adapt an intervention program designed in a comic book format that is easy to read and understand to teach workers with excess alcohol consumption to moderate their consumption. Method The work was carried out in two stages: Phase 1. Adaptation of a brief intervention to a comic book format. A comic was produced using the elements of a brief intervention. In order to ensure that the concepts put forward in the base theory were accessible to the target population, they were subjected to a process of cognitive laboratories following the methodology proposed by Beatty. The comic was produced to make the material easier to read and understand. The process began with a scriptwriter who translated the theoretical contents, together with the terms obtained in the cognitive laboratories into a story that would reflect the target population. This version was subjected to an evaluation described in stage 2. Phase 2. Evaluation of language, characters, contents, and format of comic. Participants: Researchers worked with 49 subjects from various firms and states in Mexico, 59.2% of whom were men, mostly between the ages of 24 and 42, and over half of whom were married (61.2%). Half had only completed high school or less. Instrument: The questionnaire contained demographic questions and indicators to evaluate the comic for: format, understanding of contents, characters, language, and perceived usefulness for reducing problem drinking, among other things. Procedure: Participants attended a training course during which they were asked to evaluate the comic. Each one was given a printed copy and a questionnaire. The subjects volunteered to participate and were guaranteed the confidentiality of the information they provided. Results Over 85% said that they were used to reading on a daily to weekly basis. Most of them thought that the illustrations were attractive and felt that the characters reflected the role they played in the story. They did not like the length of the comic or the fact that the drawings were extremely detailed, with too much text. They also disliked the font and the type of language used. Nearly 80% thought that the reading material was neither tedious nor dull. Most rated the story good or very good and thought that the title encouraged people to read it and that they would use it if they had drinking problems. They also identified themselves with the characters and the situations described in the comic. What they liked best was the way the topic was dealt with in a comic, the way the problem was highlighted, the type of language used (colloquial), the message given, the goal setting, the way they became involved in the reading, and the link between users and the family environment. Finally, the evaluations of the comic showed that some drawings were regarded as aggressive, the children's language did not match their parents', and the order of the dialogues was confusing. This moment in the translation of the intervention made it possible to make changes in several aspects included in the final version. The comic was given to a proofreader to correct spelling mistakes while maintaining the colloquial tone. Discussion This activity resulted in a comic in which the characters guide the workers through a series of strategies to reduce consumption. This complies with the principles of translating research by adapting the concepts derived from social and motivational cognitive theory, which have proved their effectiveness in dealing with addictive behaviors. The inclusion of experts from various areas made it possible to adapt knowledge, by incorporating strategies from the latter into a script that included the dialogues and sketched the characters that would form part of the story. The experts continued to participate during the evaluation process until the final version, with the definitive images, and final dialogues and exercises. Having the workers targeted by the intervention try out various aspects of the material made it possible to adjust the language, contents and the story told, the characters' performance and appearance and the way the exercises and dialogues were carried out. This also made it possible to see how useful the workers found it in reducing their own consumption or helping the people around them -family, co-workers and friends- to do so. In order to produce this sort of material, it is essential to use colloquial language that will be understood by the target population, which is the most delicate stage of the process since it involves the correct use of technical assumptions, since otherwise, one would work from a totally different perspective. This material can reach men of productive age, who are those that make less use of health services, meaning that it is a tool that covers this inaccessible sector of the population. However, the workers were also given the possibility of seeking help from specialists if they failed to achieve their objectives, in which case the comic achieves the objective of raising awareness. Lastly, one of the limitations of the material concerns the fact that the subject himself has to follow up his own progress, meaning that the adaptation must be carried out as rigorously as possible. It also implies that the material must be evaluated through an analysis of the changes that take place in workers as a result of using it. The next stage will therefore be to test the intervention through the comic in a controlled test and to evaluate its efficiency in reducing alcohol abuse problems, as well as the subject's possible progression to severe dependence.

El abuso en el consumo de alcohol en México es un problema de salud pública por lo que se han realizado diferentes acciones para reducir los niveles de consumo y las consecuencias derivadas de éste. Entre estas acciones hay intervenciones que han probado su eficacia en diferentes escenarios. En el ambiente laboral, sin embargo, ha sido complicado instrumentarlas, por el rechazo, el poco apoyo y el desinterés de funcionarios e instituciones, porque los empleados no disponen de tiempo en sus jornadas y por la falta de espacios para realizar actividades de prevención. Por esta razón es importante adaptar el conocimiento científico para el desarrollo de intervenciones eficientes, más simples, más prácticas y más seguras. Actualmente el proceso de traducción de la investigación es una vía para lograrlo. El objetivo de este artículo es describir este proceso mediante la adaptación de una intervención basada en las teorías cognitiva social y motivacional, cuyos conceptos se presentan en forma de estrategias guiadas por personajes en una historieta -de fácil lectura y comprensión- con la finalidad de que trabajadores que presentan consumo nocivo de alcohol aprendan a moderarlo. Método El trabajo se realizó en dos fases: Fase 1. Se creó la historieta para lograr que los conceptos planteados en la teoría base fueran accesibles a la población objetivo en un formato fácil de leer y entender. Fase 2. Evaluación de lenguaje, personajes, contenidos y formato de la historieta. Participantes: Cuarenta y nueve sujetos voluntarios de diferentes empresas y Estados de la República Mexicana, 59.2% hombres, la mayoría de entre 24 y 43 años, más de la mitad casados y con escolaridad de preparatoria o menos. Instrumento: Un cuestionario que contenía preguntas demográficas e indicadores para evaluar la historieta. Procedimiento: Los participantes se encontraban en un curso de capacitación, ahí se les dio una historieta y un cuestionario invitándolos a que ayudaran para evaluarla. La participación fue voluntaria y se garantizó la confidencialidad de la información proporcionada. Resultados En su mayoría las ilustraciones les resultaron agradables, consideraron a los personajes acordes con el papel que desempeñan en la historia, que la lectura del material no era tediosa o cansada, mencionaron que la historia era buena o muy buena y que el título motivaba a la lectura, que usarían la guía si tuvieran problemas con su consumo de alcohol, además de sentirse identificados con los personajes y las situaciones descritas. Lo que más les agradó es el modo en que se trató el tema en una historieta, el lenguaje utilizado, el mensaje que se les da, el planteamiento de metas, la forma de involucrarlos en la lectura, la relación del consumidor y la familia, cómo los van motivando, lo que sucede en la recaída y cómo se recupera el usuario. La información recabada fue utilizada para realizar la versión final de la historieta. Discusión El resultado fue un material de fácil lectura que permite su utilización individual, en momentos y lugares que cada persona deseé utilizar. Cumple con los principios de la traducción de la investigación al adaptar conceptos derivados de la teoría. Para lograrlo fue importante el uso de lenguaje coloquial que facilitó su lectura y la apropiación de los conocimientos por la población objetivo, esto implicó incluir cuidadosamente los supuestos teóricos para no distorsionar la perspectiva planteada originalmente. Esta intervención permite además llegar a grupos de difícil acceso como los hombres en edad productiva, que acuden poco a servicios de salud. Es necesario probar la intervención mediante la historieta, por ello la siguiente etapa será hacerlo mediante un ensayo controlado para evaluar su eficiencia para reducir los problemas de abuso de alcohol, así como la eventual progresión a la dependencia grave.

Validación de la prueba de identificación de trastornos derivados del consumo de alcohol (AUDIT) en pacientes Mexicanos con esquizofrenia / Validation of the alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT) in Mexican patients with schizophrenia

OBJETIVOS: Validar la Prueba de Identificación de Trastornos Derivados del Consumo de Alcohol (AUDIT, por su sigla en inglés) en pacientes con esquizofrenia. MÉTODOS: Se aplicó la Cédula Diagnóstica Internacional Compuesta (CIDI, por su sigla en inglés) versión 1.0 y el AUDIT a 80 sujetos con esquizofrenia, de ambos sexos y mayores de 16 años, de la consulta externa del Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría de la ciudad de México. RESULTADOS: De los 80 pacientes esquizofrénicos, 57 eran hombres y 23 mujeres con un promedio de edad de 30,5 y 34,3 años, respectivamente; la edad de inicio de la esquizofrenia fue de 22 años para los hombres y 26 años para las mujeres; 35 sujetos (43,7 por ciento) consumían alcohol al momento del estudio. La escala AUDIT mostró alta consistencia interna, con un alfa de Cronbach de 0,812; el punto de corte de la escala completa del AUDIT para esta población fue de 4 puntos o más; se construyeron los puntos de corte de la "prueba rápida" y de los "Problemas psicosociales y probable dependencia al alcohol" del AUDIT utilizando como estándar de comparación el CIDI (DSM-III-R y CIE-10). CONCLUSIONES: La validación del AUDIT mostró que es un instrumento de tamizaje muy útil y sensible para identificar a pacientes con esquizofrenia en riesgo de abuso o dependencia de alcohol, por lo que se recomienda su uso en estudios clínicos y epidemiológicos en Latinoamérica.

OBJECTIVES: To validate the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) in schizophrenic patients. METHODS: The Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI v. 1) and the AUDIT were administered to 80 subjects with schizophrenia, of both sexes, more than 16 years of age, from the outpatient services at the National Institute of Psychiatry in Mexico City. RESULTS: Of the 80 schizophrenic patients, 57 were men and 23 women, with a mean age of 30.5 years and 34.3 years, respectively; the age at schizophrenia onset was 22 years for men, and 26 years for women; 35 subjects (43.7 percent) were consumers of alcohol at the time of the study. The AUDIT scale showed high internal consistency with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.812; for this population, the cutoff point for the full AUDIT scale was 4 points or more; cutoff points for the AUDIT "rapid test" and the "psychosocial issues and probable alcohol dependence" were based on benchmarking against the CIDI (DSM-IIIR and ICD-10). CONCLUSIONS: The AUDIT validation showed it to be a useful and sensitive screening tool for identifying schizophrenic patients at risk for alcohol abuse and dependence; therefore, it is recommended for use in clinical and epidemiological studies in Latin America.

Encuesta de estudiantes de la Ciudad de México 2006: Prevalencias y evolución del consumo de drogas / Student survey of Mexico City 2006: Prevalence and trends of drug use

Introduction Since three years from now, in Mexico there has been several surveys and specific research regarding drug use. Over these years the national surveillance systems databases (SISVEA, CIJ) have shown that cocaine use has stabilized and marijuana use is still increasing, although there are some regional differences. Also, the results of the 2003 Mexico City Students' Survey revealed a similar inclination: an increase on marijuana use, a slight diminish on cocaine use and as a new stage: a rebound on inhalant use. However, these changes and trends on drug use are not the same all over the country. The results found in these databases suggest that the northern border behaves differently from the rest of the country, even all along the northern border itself. While drug use in Matamoros is lower than in other border cities, Nuevo Laredo, Reynosa and Ciudad Juarez registered high cocaine and heroin use. On the other hand, even though the border cities of Sonora and Baja California have these same drug use problems, they also show high rates of methamphetamine use. Another important issue on border cities is that Ciudad Juarez has reached Tijuana's use levels, mainly among teens between 12 and 1 7 years old. These two cities have the highest substance use levels in the country, even above Mexico City. On the central region of the country, the drug use rates are halfway between. Even though Mexico City's drug use levels are among the central region and the two border cities mentioned before, in all the states that have been studied, there's been a general significant increase in drug use. In southern states, especially Yucatan (where there's a household and a students' survey), the drug rates are the lowest in the country. However, the women's drug use rates keeps increasing. Specifically the 2003 students' survey showed that in some Mexico City's counties women have higher alcohol and tobacco prevalence, and their illegal drug use trends begin to be alike to men's illegal drug use trends. Objective To present drug use prevalence results from the 2006 Mexico City Students Survey. Material and methods This survey used a 10523 Mexico City students random sample. The sample design was stratified (by county), with two stages (by school) and clustered (by groups). This data is representative by State County and by educational level. The design is comparable with previous student's surveys made by the National Psychiatric Institute (INP) and the Mexican Board of Education (SEP). The marijuana, cocaine and inhalants variation coefficients (VC) were determined according to the 2003 survey. The variable with the highest VC, a non-response rate and a design effect of two were considered as in previous surveys. With all these parameters, it was considered a 15% non-response rate, the same found in previous studies. The sample's accuracy level was 95%, with an absolute error average of 0.004. The questionnaire was made with drug use indicators that the World Health Organization used in their own surveys. Besides, some youth behaviors were explored: suicide attempt, depression, eating risk behaviors, sexual behavior, etc. Results From this sample 49.9% were women and 50.5% male. As for Tobacco <>, it affected the same both men and women, and remained similar in comparison to 2003. Also, 68.8% of the adolescents have consumed alcohol at least once in their life and 41.3% has drunk it in the previous month, being women and men equally behaved. The total drug use prevalence was 1 7.8%, statistically higher than in the 2003 survey, with a 2.6% difference. Men use more drugs compared to women. Of the total sample, 12.9% is an experimental user and 4.9% is a regular user (have used drugs five or more times). As for medical drugs (tranquillizers and amphetamines), their use is higher in women, while illegal drugs use (marijuana, cocaine, hallucinogens, inhalants, methamphetamine and heroin) is higher in men. In general terms, illegal drug use is higher than medical drugs use. Substance use percentage was nearly twice for tenth to twelfth grade students, compared to seventh to ninth grade students. Women have experimented less with illegal drugs in the 'previous year of use' than men, yet women have shown an important increase on inhalant and marijuana use over the past three years, and cocaine use has remained similar. Marijuana is the first choice drug among adolescents, followed by inhalants, tranquillizers in third place and cocaine in fourth place of choice. Also, the results show that drug use is highly related with other problematic behaviors like suicidal attempt, depressive sintomatology, antisocial behavior, and sexual risk behaviors. Conclusions The study points out an important increase in drug use over the past three years, going from 15.2% to 17.8%. Different trends can be seen on each substance. On the one hand, marijuana and inhalants use has increased widely, on the other hand tranquillizers use remains stable and cocaine use has decreased. These results showed that the illegal drugs use among both men and women has increased (marijuana and inhalants mostly), women's cocaine use has remained steady, but men's has been reduced. Legal drugs use behavior hasn't changed: the use of alcohol has enhanced, while tobacco use is similar to the 2003 survey. It has also been reported that the use rate of both substances is practically the same among men and women. Also, the situation of México City has changed slightly. The counties that are more damaged by drug use are: Azcapotzalco, Cuauhtémoc, Benito Juárez, Coyoacán and Tlalpan. In order to improve drug use prevention programs to consider the relationship between several problematic behaviors like suicidal attempt or antisocial behavior, because users showed prevalence at least twice more than non users. Likewise, there still exist a low risk perception and a high tolerance towards tobacco and alcohol use, which are important risk factors for using other drugs. Additionally, if we also take into account that the first use takes place a younger age, the probabilities of using medical and illegal drugs increase significantly.

Introducción Desde hace tres años se han hecho varias encuestas sobre consumo de drogas en nuestro país, además de investigaciones específicas sobre el tema. En estos últimos tres años diversos sistemas de información del país (SISVEA, CIJ) han mostrado que el consumo de cocaína se ha estabilizado y que el consumo de mariguana sigue en aumento, aunque estos aspectos presentan variaciones a nivel regional. Asimismo, en los datos de la encuesta de estudiantes de la Ciudad de México del 2003, se encontró una situación similar, hubo un incremento en el consumo de mariguana, un ligero decremento en el consumo de cocaína y, como nueva situación, un repunte en el consumo de inhalables. Por supuesto que los cambios y comportamientos no son iguales en todo el país. Por otra parte, se ha observado que las mujeres han incrementado su consumo de drogas de manera específica. Por ejemplo, el reporte de la encuesta del 2003 muestra que en los casos del alcohol y del tabaco, en algunas delegaciones de la Ciudad de México hay una mayor prevalencia de mujeres que consumen estas sustancias y hay indicios de que en el consumo de algunas drogas ilegales las prevalencias del consumo son similares a las de los hombres. Objetivo El objetivo de este estudio fue el de presentar los resultados de la Encuesta del 2006 sobre las prevalencias del uso de drogas entre la comunidad escolar en la Ciudad de México. Material y métodos El estudio se realizó con una muestra aleatoria de 10 523 estudiantes de todo el Distrito Federal. Los datos de este estudio son representativos por delegación y por nivel educativo, y el diseño es comparable al de estudios anteriores realizados en escuelas por el Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuentes Muñiz y la Secretaría de Educación Pública. El cuestionario se conformó con los indicadores de consumo de drogas que se han utilizado en este tipo de estudios que corresponden a los empleados por la OMS. Además, se exploraron diversas conductas de los adolescentes, como el intento suicida, su nivel de depresión y sus conductas alimentarias de riesgo, así como diversos aspectos de su conducta sexual. Resultados Del total de la muestra el 49.5% fueron mujeres y el 50.5% fueron hombres. En los resultados se encontró que el consumo de tabaco alguna vez en la vida ha afectado de modo similar tanto a hombres como a mujeres y fue similar a lo encontrado en el 2003. Por otro lado, se encontró que el 68.8% de los/as adolescentes ha usado alcohol alguna vez en su vida y un 41.3% lo ha consumido en el último mes; resultando igualmente afectados tanto los hombres como las mujeres. La prevalencia total de consumo de drogas fue del 1 7.8%, porcentaje estadísticamente mayor al del 2003 en un 2.6%. Los hombres estuvieron dentro del subgrupo más afectado por el consumo actual en comparación con las mujeres. De acuerdo al nivel educativo de los participantes, el consumo de sustancias fue casi del doble para los/as adolescentes de escuelas de bachillerato, como para los de bachillerato técnico, en comparación con los/as de secundaria. En cuanto a las drogas ilegales, en el consumo durante el último año, una proporción menor de mujeres ha experimentado con drogas -en ellas se ha observado, en los últimos tres años, un incremento importante en el consumo de inhalables y mariguana- en tanto que el consumo de cocaína se ha mantenido estable. Por lo que respecta a cada sustancia, la mariguana ocupa el primer lugar de preferencia entre los/as adolescentes, le sigue el consumo de inhalables, los tranquilizantes en tercer lugar y la cocaína en cuarto. Conclusiones El estudio mostró un incremento importante en el consumo de drogas en los últimos tres años: del 15.2% ha pasado a 17.8%. Además, dentro del uso de cada sustancia se observan situaciones distintas. Por un lado, el incremento del uso de la mariguana y de los inhalables es grande, mientras que en los tranquilizantes el consumo se mantiene estable y el de la cocaína ha disminuido. Al analizar estos resultados según el sexo, se encontró que los niveles de consumo de drogas ilegales (mariguana e inhalables principalmente), en las mujeres, han aumentado y la cocaína se ha mantenido estable: en tanto que en los hombres también se han incrementado las dos primeras sustancias, pero el consumo de cocaína ha disminuido. Por lo que respecta a las drogas legales, la dinámica se mantiene similar. Por un lado, el consumo de alcohol se ha incrementado en tanto que el consumo de tabaco se mantiene similar al del 2003. Las delegaciones más afectadas por el consumo de drogas son Azcapotzalco, Cuauhtémoc, Benito Juárez, Coyoacán y Tlalpan, las cuales han desplazado a Gustavo A. Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Iztacalco y Miguel Hidalgo. En el caso del abuso del alcohol, también han cambiado las delegaciones más afectadas, actualmente son Miguel Hidalgo, Cuauhtémoc, Benito Juárez, Cuajimalpa y Tlalpan. Al analizar la relación del consumo de drogas con otras conductas problemáticas se observa que los y las usuarias de drogas, han presentado de dos a tres veces más sintomatología depresiva, intento suicida, conductas antisociales, así como un posible trastorno por déficit de atención.

Association between smoking and minimal-mild depressive symptomatology in heavy smokers / Asociación entre el hábito de fumar y la sintomatología depresiva mínima leve en fumadores fuertes

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that by the year 2020 tobacco addiction will be responsible for 10 million deaths, seventy percent of which will occur in underdeveloped countries. On the other hand, depression affects about 121 million people worldwide, and is projected to reach a second place in the ranking of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) calculated for all ages and both sexes by the year 2020. In Mexico, 14 million people are current smokers and 9.6 million are former smokers, according to the 2002 National Addictions Survey, and almost four million people are diagnosed with depression. Both disorders are classified among the main causes of mortality and disability in Mexico. By gender, major depression in females is the second most prevalent disorder. Two percent of the Mexican population (two million people) present at least one major depressive episode before reaching the age of 18. Several studies have found an important link between depression and smoking. More recently, it was reported that the manifestation of depressive symptomatology predicts smoking addiction. Although the strong association between affective disorders and drug abuse has been documented, they are generally treated independently. For this reason, the need for integral management of comorbid diseases has been highlighted. Little is known about specific populations of patients that simultaneously manifest both disorders, and more knowledge is needed in order to design precise integral treatments for this kind of patients, taking into consideration the gender, severity of depression and level of nicotine dependence. The aim of this study was to describe the association between depressive symptoms, sociodemographic characteristics, and pattern of tobacco consumption of heavy smokers with minimal-mild depressive symptomatology in order to adjust for these relations in a later longitudinal regression analysis after these subjects have been assigned to different conditions of a new integral treatment to quit smoking. A total of 89 heavy smokers were assessed; 74 of them (83%) had minimal-mild depressive symptomatology; there were 35 females and 39 males, with an average age of 44.3 yrs. Level of tobacco addiction was determined by the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence, and the Beck Depression Inventory was used to assess depressive symptomatology. By means of regression models, we found an increase of the depressive symptomatology related to the severity of tobacco addiction (p= .025). Those with a bachelor's educational level, had less depressive symptomatology (p= .025). The high frequency of depressive symptomatology and the protective factor of schooling concur with findings reported in other studies. The better understanding of the characteristics of smokers with different levels of tobacco consumption and depressive symptomatology is suggested. It is important to gain knowledge on the particular characteristics of specific groups of smokers for the development of new treatments that can simultaneously treat smoking addiction and depression, and can also help to norm criteria for their treatment.

La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) estima que para el año 2020 la adicción al tabaco será responsable de 10 millones de muertes, 70% de las cuales ocurrirá en los países subdesarrollados. La mitad de los fumadores actuales, aproximadamente 650 millones de personas, morirá debido a una causa relacionada con el consumo de tabaco. Por otro lado, actualmente la depresión afecta a cerca de 121 millones de personas en el mundo, y se ha proyectado que para el año 2020 ocupará el segundo lugar en Años de Vida Ajustados por Discapacidad (AVAD) en todos los grupos de edad y en ambos sexos. En México, 14 millones de personas son fumadores actuales y 9.6 millones son ex fumadores, según la Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones (ENA) 2002, y casi cuatro millones de personas padecen depresión. Ambos trastornos se clasifican entre las principales causas de morbimortalidad en nuestro país. En cuanto a las diferencias por sexo, en las mujeres, la depresión es el segundo trastorno más frecuente. El dos por ciento de la población mexicana (dos millones de personas) ha padecido por lo menos un episodio de depresión importante antes de alcanzar la edad de 18 años. Varios estudios han encontrado una asociación importante entre la depresión y el tabaquismo. Recientemente se reportó que la manifestación de la sintomatología depresiva predice la adicción al tabaco. De acuerdo con varios estudios, se sabe que la nicotina reduce la incidencia y la gravedad de los síntomas depresivos y que la abstinencia del tabaco puede desencadenar síntomas depresivos, por lo que se ha sugerido que las personas con depresión fuman a manera de automedicación contra la sintomatología depresiva. A pesar de que ha sido documentada la fuerte asociación entre los trastornos afectivos y las adicciones, estos trastornos se atienden generalmente de manera independiente. Por esta razón, se ha subrayado la necesidad de generar tratamientos integrales para los trastornos comórbidos. Hasta el momento, se sabe poco sobre poblaciones específicas de pacientes que de manera simultánea son adictos al tabaco y padecen sintomatología depresiva, por lo se requiere de mayor entendimiento de sus características para diseñar tratamientos integrales específicos para este tipo de pacientes. Para ello se debe tomar en consideración el sexo, la gravedad de la depresión y el nivel de dependencia de la nicotina. El objetivo del presente estudio fue describir la relación que existe entre los síntomas depresivos, las características sociodemográficas y el patrón de consumo de tabaco en fumadores fuertes con sintomatología depresiva mínima leve para ajustar dichas relaciones mediante un modelo de regresión longitudinal, en un estudio posterior, donde los pacientes serán asignados a diversas condiciones terapéuticas de un nuevo tratamiento integral contra el tabaquismo. Un total de 89 fumadores fuertes fueron evaluados; 74 de ellos (83%) padecían sintomatología depresiva mínima leve; había 35 mujeres y 39 hombres, con una media de edad de 44.3 años. El nivel de adicción al tabaco fue determinado por la prueba de Fagerström para la dependencia a la nicotina, y se usó el Inventario de Depresión de Beck para determinar el nivel de sintomatología depresiva. Mediante un modelo de regresión, encontramos un aumento de la sintomatología depresiva relacionada con la gravedad de la dependencia al tabaco (p = .025). Aquellos con nivel de enseñanza de licenciatura presentaron menos sintomatología depresiva (p = .025). Los principales resultados de este estudio son la asociación significativa entre el nivel de dependencia al tabaco y la sintomatología depresiva en fumadores fuertes. Tanto la alta incidencia de la sintomatología depresiva como el factor protector de la enseñanza concuerdan con los reportes de otros estudios con fumadores. Es importante conocer las características particulares de grupos específicos de fumadores para desarrollar nuevos tratamientos que pueden tratar simultáneamente la adicción al tabaco y la depresión, así como para ayudar a normar criterios para su tratamiento. Se sugiere continuar ahondando en el conocimiento de las características de los fumadores con diversos niveles de consumo de tabaco y sintomatología depresiva.

Tendencias del consumo de drogas de 1998 a 2005 en tres ciudades de la zona norte de México: Ciudad Juárez, Monterrey y Tijuana / Trends of drug use 1998 to 2005 in three cities in the northern zone of Mexico: Ciudad Juarez, Monterrey and Tijuana

Drug use in Mexico has been on the rise since the 1970s. Nonetheless, this problem has exhibited important variations in the different regions of Mexico. To document these trends, the National Institute of Psychiatry Ramón de la Fuente (INP) has performed household surveys on addictions in different Mexican cities. In the 1970s and early 1980s surveys were conducted in the following cities: Mexico City, La Paz, Baja California Sur; Mexicali, Baja California Norte; Monterrey, Nuevo León; San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí; and Puebla, Puebla, among others. The first national survey in urban population was carried out in 1 988, and was repeated in 1993 and 1998, while the first national survey to included rural population was conducted in 2002, which is being followed by another study currently in the field. The student population has also been extensively studied, and has been included in three national drug surveys and studies performed in different entities. Antecedents Results from these surveys show that drug use has not increased in a uniform fashion throughout the Mexican Republic and both student and household surveys have demonstrated higher rates in the northwestern region of the country comprising the states of Baja California, Sonora and Chihuahua, which have exhibited above-average drug use on comparison with the remaining regions of the country. The most frequently consumed drug by the population is marihuana. The 1988 national household survey registered a rising prevalence in use of 2.9% in Mexican population aged 12-65 years of individuals who had used drugs at some time during their lifetime; in 1993 this prevalence increased to 3.32% and in 1998 to 4.70%; while in 2002 the percentage demonstrated a slight decrease to 3.48%. In 1988, the second place in drug preferences of the population was inhalants with a prevalence of drug use at some time during their lifetime of 0.76%; by 1993, the second place was occupied by cocaine. Prevalence of use of the latter was 0.33% in 1988; by 1993, cocaine increased to 0.56% and to 1.45% in 1998, presenting a slight decrease in use in 2002 (1.23%). From 1988-2002 non-prescribed medical drugs consumed were found in the third place in population preference. Objective This article compared drug use rates observed in three cities on or near Mexico's northern border with the U. S.: Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua; Tijuana, Baja California Norte, and Monterrey, Nuevo León, were studied as part of the 1 998 national survey on addictions by selecting independent representative samples of these localities and with a new survey of these entities in 2005. Method The 1998 national survey of addictions was carried out in a representative sample of Mexican urban population (in localities of 2500 inhabitants). Independent samples were drawn from inhabitants living in several cities throughout Mexico. In this article we report the drug-use trends for three of these cities (Ciudad Juarez, Monterrey and Tijuana) by comparing the rates observed in 1998 with the results of a new wave of household surveys conducted in 2005 in the same cities using comparable methodology. Samples in both periods included population 12-65 years of age residing in households. Sample design was stratified by means of the following: several stages with localities (Áreas Geoestadísticas Básicas, AGEBS, its acronym in Spanish, census tracts); blocks of houses within the selected localities; segments of houses within sample blocks, and one individual per household as the selection unit in each stage. Sample size in Tijuana was 466 and 553 in 1998 and 2005, respectively, while sample sizes for Ciudad Juarez were 472 in 1998 and 606 in 2005, and for Monterrey this was 637 in 1998 and 675 in 2005, and the non-response rate was 23% in 1 998 and 20.3% in 2005. Instruments for obtaining information employed in both time frames considered were similar. Two types of questionnaires were administered: a household questionnaire that included sociodemographic information on all household inhabitants in the sample and their housing conditions and an standardized individual questionnaire administered in a face-to-face interview that collected information on the following: prevalence and use patterns of tobacco, alcohol, five types of illegal drugs (marihuana, cocaine, heroin, hallucinogens, amphetamine-type stimulants and other drugs); four types of medical pharmaceuticals utilized without a prescription (narcotics, stimulants, tranquilizers and sedatives), determining consequences and services utilization. In this article tobacco and alcohol use is not reported. This questionnaire has been extensively tested and used in previous surveys. Interviewers were persons academically prepared in the Social Sciences and trained in the logistics of the several survey stages and extensively supervised during field work. Results Highest rates of use were observed in Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez in contrast with Monterrey, which had lower rates. When use of any drug was considered, an increase in lifetime use from 1998-2005 was observed in all three cities; when use during the past year was contemplated, an increase was observed from 1998-2005 from 2.8-4.8% in the case of Ciudad Juarez and in Monterrey from 1.3%-2.0%, while these rates for Tijuana decreased from 5.4%-4.01%. Reports of use during the previous month fell in Tijuana from 4.4%-2.81 % and in Monterrey this decreased from 1.1 %-0.71 %, while in Ciudad Juarez drug use rates during the previous month increased from 2.4%-3.24%. It is important to mention that there was no statistical significance in any of the different prevalences types. Lifetime use of medical drugs without prescription increased in Tijuana and in Monterrey, while in Ciudad Juarez this remained stable from 1998-2005. In 2005, use of medical drugs decreased in Ciudad Juarez from 1.2%-0.88% and in Tijuana from 1.3%-1 .28%, while in Monterrey no use was detected in 1998, but 0.48% of interviewees did reported drug use in 2005. Previous-month use increased in Tijuana from 0.7%-1 .28% and in Monterrey this ranged from no use in 1998 to 0.48% by contrast in Ciudad Juarez previous-month drug use fell from 1.2-0.88%. In referring only to use of any illegal drug (excluding medical pharmaceutical), lifetime use increased in all three cities from 1998-2005; lifetime use doubled in Monterrey and Ciudad Juarez, while use during the previous year decreased in Tijuana from 4.4%-3.25% and increased in Ciudad Juarez from 1.6%-3.98% and in Monterrey from 1.3%-1 .52%. Prior-month increased in Ciudad Juarez from 1.2%-2.42%, while this exhibited a decrease in Tijuana from 3.9%-2.05% and in Monterrey from 1.1%-0.23%. Data also indicate that a high proportion of individuals in Monterrey have used only one drug; these percentages rose in the 1998-2005 period from 3.7%-8.96% numbers of the poly-drug users doubled in Tijuana from 4%-8.44% and in Ciudad Juarez from 3.2%-7.43%; in Tijuana this was due to an increase among males, and in Ciudad Juarez the number of poly-drug users increased in both genders.

El consumo de drogas en México ha ido en aumento. En la década de 1970, el Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría realizó las primeras encuestas de hogares sobre el tema de las adicciones en población de distintas ciudades del país: la Ciudad de México, La Paz, B.C.S.; Mexicali, B.C.; Monterrey, N.L.; San Luis Potosí, S.L.P., y Puebla, Pue, entre otras y ha documentado las tendencias del problema y sus variaciones regionales. A nivel nacional se han realizado en hogares cuatro encuestas en 1988, en 1993, en 1998 y en 2002, denominadas <>. Asimismo se han levantado tres encuestas nacionales sobre drogas entre la población estudiantil, las cuales han dado cuenta de que el consumo de drogas no se ha incrementado de manera uniforme en el país, sino que tanto en las encuestas estudiantiles como entre las de adicciones ha resaltado la zona noroccidental, conformada por estados como Baja California, Sonora y Chihuahua, donde se tienen las mayores cifras de consumo de drogas en la República Mexicana. Las encuestas de adicciones indican que la droga que más ha consumido alguna vez en la vida la población urbana de 12 a 65 años es la mariguana, con los siguientes porcentajes: en 1988, 2.99%; en 1993, 3.32%; en 1998, 4.70%; y en la medición de 2002 disminuyó ligeramente a 3.48%. En 1988, el segundo lugar lo ocupaban los inhalables con 0.76%, pero en las demás mediciones ocupa este lugar la cocaína, con 0.56% en 1 993; 1.45% en 1998 y en 2002, 1.23%. En el tercer lugar se encuentran las drogas médicas consumidas sin prescripción desde 1988 hasta 2002. Este artículo presenta una comparación de las prevalencias de uso de drogas en tres ciudades de la Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones de 1998 con respecto a la Encuesta de ciudades de 2005 de las tres ciudades siguientes: Ciudad Juárez, Monterrey y Tijuana. La Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones de 1998 se realizó en una muestra representativa de la población urbana de todo el país (en localidades de más de 2500 habitantes). En esta encuesta, las 32 entidades del país se dividieron en tres regiones y también se obtuvieron muestras en ciudades fronterizas que fueron: Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez y Matamoros y en tres zonas metropolitanas que fueron: La ciudad de México, Guadalajara y Monterrey. La muestra fue de 12015 entrevistas completas. La encuesta de ciudades de 2005 se realizó en cuatro ciudades que fueron: Querétaro, Monterrey, Ciudad Juárez y Tijuana. Sin embargo, para efectos de este trabajo, solamente se comparan las tres últimas. Las dos encuestas tuvieron como objetivo a la población de 12 a 65 años de edad. En ambas se aplicaron dos cuestionarios: el de hogar con datos socioeconómicos y otro individual, cuyas secciones de consumo de drogas fueron iguales. El muestreo en ambas encuestas fue multietápico, probabilístico y estratificado, y en la última etapa se seleccionó a un individuo de cada hogar con un rango de edad de 12 a 65 años. Se obtuvo una no respuesta de 23% en 1998 y de 20.3% en 2005.

Tabaquismo y depresión / Smoking and depression

The objective of the present work is to review updated information about smoking and depression, based on a revision of PubMed Data Base to find articles with the words <>, <> and <> in the title, the summary, or the key words. The date of the most recent article reviewed was April of the 2008. An analysis of these articles was performed aiming to select the pertinent ones for the subject to treat in this summary. Additional articles were selected from references found in articles identified in the original revision. In addition, we offer a proposition about new research directions for depression and smoking, specially treatments for those patients who have simultaneously these disorders, since it's important to design and evaluate new treatments against tobacco smoking habits. Treatments must have an integral approach, contemplating the psychological as well as the pharmacological intervention in order to achieve for a complete treatment. Smoking and depression constitute two important worldwide and national public health problems. Tobacco addiction is worldwide one of the main causes of deterioration of the quality of life and increased morbi-mortality. It causes 5000000 deaths per year (one out of ten deaths of adults).The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that according to present tendencies, in the year 2020, smoking habits will be responsible for ten million deaths, of which, seven out of ten will take place in developing countries. For the year 2030 tobacco smoking will be the main cause of death around the world. In Mexico, according to the latest National Survey of Addictions, there were 14 million smokers, 9.6 million were former smokers and around 60000 people die every year due to illnesses directly related to smoking habits. In adittion, in the year 2002 the WHO informed that depression was the prevailing disorders in general population with 154012 cases, affecting primarily women (62%) (95023 cases). This disorder is already the main cause of disability in the world, with 121 million people living with the disease. The estimation for the year 2020 is that it will be the second cause of labor loss in developed countries. In Mexico, depression is one of the main causes of mortality and burden of disease nation wide. A study focused on early depression in Mexican population, reported that 2.0% has suffered depression at some point during childhood or adolescence, and will present an average of seven depression episodes throughout their life. During the last years, studies have shown a strong relation between smoking and depression. Therefore, people with history of depression have a tendency to develop tobacco addiction. Also, this kind of patients reveal an important reduction in the severity of the depressive symptoms when consuming nicotine. In spite of the evidence of the high comorbidity between these two diseases, their treatment is generally provided from an independent perspective, making it urgent to recognize the importance of their integrate attention. In a study performed in order to determine the probability of occurrence of substance dependency disorder when affection disorders coexist, it was reported that dependency disorders occur before the abuse or dependency of substances in 47% of men and in 26% of women. In relation specifically to tobacco smoking habits, it has been reported that smokers who consume more than one pack per day have three times more probability of presenting symptoms of depression compared to nonsmokers. It has been shown that patients with depressive symptomatolgy smoke as a way of self medication against this disabiling disease. Until now there is not enough information to predict if former smokers with depression can attain long term tobacco abstinence, as well as which would be are the effects produced by abstinence over depressive symptomatology. Because smokers with history of depression have a great probability of experiencing symptoms of the disease during abstinence, more research regarding treatment with antidepressants after abstincence period has been proved necessary. Reviews are discussed in terms of their theoretical and clinical implications for smoking cessation research. Treatment of patients with both disorders must contemplate psychological and pharmacological attention. The appropriate medical attention of comorbid diseases will surely increase the rehabilitation's rate of success.

La intención del presente trabajo es la de reseñar información actualizada sobre el tabaquismo y la depresión, a partir de una revisión de la base de datos PubMed. La fecha del artículo revisado más reciente fue abril del 2008. Se seleccionaron sólo los trabajos pertinentes al tema a tratar en este resumen. Artículos adicionales fueron seleccionados a partir de las referencias de los artículos de la revisión original. Asimismo, se plantea una propuesta sobre hacia dónde se debería dirigir la investigación para el tratamiento de aquellos pacientes que presentan de manera simultánea estos dos trastornos, contemplando tanto el aspecto psicológico como el farmacológico. La adicción al tabaco es una de las principales causas de morbimortalidad y deterioro de la calidad de vida, y ocasiona cinco millones de muertes al año (una de cada diez defunciones de adultos en el mundo). La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) estima que de mantenerse las tendencias actuales, para el año 2020 el tabaquismo será responsable de diez millones de defunciones, de las cuales siete de cada diez ocurrirán en los países en desarrollo. En México, de acuerdo con la última Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones, existen 14 millones de fumadores y 9.6 millones de exfumadores (ENA, 2002). Alrededor de 60000 personas mueren al año por padecimientos vinculados con el tabaquismo. Por otro lado, la depresión es ya la principal causa de invalidez en el mundo, siendo 121 millones de personas las que la padecen, y se estima que para el año 2020 será la segunda causa de baja laboral en los países desarrollados. En nuestro país la prevalencia de la depresión con inicio temprano es del 2.0%, con un promedio de siete episodios a lo largo de la vida y se clasifica entre las principales causas de mortalidad y morbilidad a nivel nacional. En los últimos años se ha reportado una fuerte asociación entre el tabaquismo y la depresión. Se sabe que las personas con historia de depresión son más susceptibles a fumar, y que los síntomas depresivos que se manifiestan durante la abstinencia son reversibles con la reintroducción del cigarro. Con el objetivo de determinar la probabilidad de ocurrencia de un trastorno de dependencia de sustancias cuando coexisten trastornos del afecto, se encontró que dichos trastornos ocurren antes del abuso o dependencia de sustancias en 47% para los hombres y en 26% para las mujeres. En concordancia con lo anterior, se ha reportado que los fumadores actuales que consumen más de una cajetilla por día, tienen tres veces más probabilidad de presentar depresión que los no fumadores. Como resultado de varios estudios, se ha propuesto la teoría de que las personas con depresión fuman a manera de automedicación contra sus síntomas, pero se desconoce si los pacientes con depresión pueden mantenerse en abstinencia a largo plazo, e igualmente se desconoce cuáles son los efectos de la abstinencia sobre la sintomatología depresiva. Además se ha planteado la necesidad de evaluar si el tratamiento postabstinencia con antidepresivos previene dicha sintomatología. A partir de la información reseñada es posible concluir que el tratamiento de aquellos pacientes que presentan de manera simultánea estos dos trastornos, debería contemplar tanto el aspecto psicológico como el farmacológico y que la atención simultánea de los trastornos comórbidos elevará la tasa de éxito de los tratamientos.

La familia y el maltrato como factores de riesgo de conducta antisocial

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Summary: Antisocial behavior emerges as the result of different factors such as scholar problems, drug consumption, alcoholism, antisocial peer relationships, emotional problems, etc., which may in turn predispose to the individual to develop a pattern of antisocial behavior. The present work aims to determine the association of antisocial behavior between the factors of a bad family environment and mistreatment, and to determine if they can predict the presence of antisocial behaviors in adolescents. Family plays a primary role in the development of a person, especially in adolescent. In recent times, several problems of family disintegration and inadequate parent-child relationships are observed, and it has been described that antisocial personalities may arise from environments with child abuse, economical problems, humiliation, physical punishment and family disintegration. The experience of such emotions during childhood may lead to a severe impairment in the conformation of an emotionally-adapted personality, and may promote a tendency for the commitment of delictive behaviors in the future. It is necessary to close the vicious cycle where mistreated parents mistreat their own children and avoid that the parents who lived unpleasant experiences of hostility, rejection, lack of communication, inestability, etc., repeat these patterns with their children. It is important to revalorize the role of family, its functions and characteristics and the most important, its determinant influence on young people that have behavior problems as antisocial behavior. It is vital to create conscience about the harm that some children, adolescents and even adults have from their negative familial experiences of hostility, aggression, and mistreatment, because these experiences increase the possibilities of delictive behavior in these individuals. Objective. In this context, the present research has its main interest in showing the relationship between past experiences of mistreatment or inadequate familial environments and the presence of antisocial behaviors in adolescents. Method. The present research is supported on results of the Mexico City Survey on drug consumption in 7 th to 12 th grade population carried on October 2003. The total sample of the survey comprised 10659 students. For this research we used 3603 students, that corresponds to the number of students that completed the Form A of the questionnaire, that contained the areas of interest of the study. The questionnaire was previously validated an its main indicators have shown adequate stability in different surveys. This instrument was applied in three different times due to its extension. Total time for its application was of 75 minutes. Raters were trained for the application of the questionnaire. The course lasted 12 hours and included all the theoretical aspects related to addictions, objectives of the study, management of the questionnaire and the instructions for its application in the groups. Results. First of all, a comparative analysis by gender was performed. It was observed that antisocial behaviors were more frequent in men than in women. It is important to mention that men committed this acts in a double frequency than women, specially in terms of severe acts, where 10% of men committed them in contrast to the 3.3% observed in women. Additionally, two factor ANOVA was performed (gender and antisocial behaviors) with the variables of this study, mistreatment and family environment, to determine if there were differences between groups (p<0.05) and significant differences were observed in all the areas of family environment. The interaction analysis of the two factors: gender, act-non acts with family environment showed that for the area of hostility and rejection there were significant differences where women that committed antisocial acts were the ones that reported higher levels of hostility and rejection. In terms of communication of the son/daughter, women that committed antisocial acts were also the ones that reported a lower level of communication. In the area of parent support, women that committed antisocial acts were also the ones that reported the lower levels. In the areas of parent communication and support to the son/daughter, men and women that committed antisocial acts reported less communication and support, respectively. For the area of mistreatment, women reported higher levels of prosocial discipline and negative discipline when compared to men. No significant differences emerged between men an women in the area of severe negative discipline. Also, no significant differences emerged between adolescents that committed antisocial acts and adolescents than do not committed these acts, in terms of prosocial discipline. Nevertheless, adolescents that committed antisocial acts reported higher levels of severe negative discipline. For the analysis of the interaction of the factors gender, acts-non acts in the area of mistreatment, no differences emerged in the area of negative discipline. Significant differences emerge for prosocial discipline, where men that do not committed antisocial acts reported the lowest levels of prosocial discipline. For severe negative discipline, both men and women that committed antisocial acts reported the highest levels. Finally, using logistic regression, we find that the main predictors of antisocial behavior were the presence of high hostility, low level of communication from the children, less child support and the presence of higher negative discipline and negative severe discipline. Communication, parent support and prosocial discipline were not predictive variables for antisocial behavior. Our results support what is described in other studies where family is the main agent of socialization as family teaches the ways of social interaction, values, habit, etc. Furthermore, several studies that evaluated the relationship of the family and antisocial behavior were performed by analyzing the role of the family as a mediator of behavior and society, on the basis that family teaches children rules, abilities and motivations that in some way constitute their cultural and social patterns. We conclude that family environment and mistreatment are factors associated to the presence of antisocial behavior. We must prevent this problem by improving familial relationships and providing a positive family environment to adolescents. In this way, our adolescents may have an adequate development throughout their lives. If an adequate and positive environment is provided during childhood and is maintained through adolescence, with positive affective family relationships, the adolescent may see his/her parents as a guide; a reasonable not arbitrary discipline allows the adolescent to develop a social behavior that leads to an adequate self-control and self-directedness. On the contrary, if the relationships between parents and children are not favorable, the social behavior of the adolescent may be easily impaired and it is very common that these adolescents exhibit severe difficulties for social adaptation.

Funcionamiento psicosocial de pacientes esquizofrénicos de acuerdo con su consumo de alcohol

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Summary Background: Between 1% and 1.5% of the world population is affected by schizophrenia. In Mexico, it has been estimated that between 619,550 and 1,239,101 (1-2%) individuals suffered from schizophrenia in 2000. The condition is more common among male teenagers and young adults. The main features of schizophrenia are the positive and negative symptoms closely associated with a psychosocial functioning impairment. In addition, between 25% and 80% of the psychiatric population uses addictive substances, with alcohol, at 50%, being one of the most highly used. These substances use is closely associated with a poor psychosocial functioning; when alcohol use is accompanied by schizophrenia, psychosocial functioning is even more disrupted. In the last few years, it has been shown that an early reinsertion of schizophrenic individuals into their social and familial environment causes a lesser degree of impairment in their psychosocial functioning. This functioning is evaluated through the acquisition of new skills to move about in familial, social and work environments. The latter is called psychosocial treatment. In this sense, psychosocial functioning is described as each individual's ability to adapt, function, move about and interact in a social and personal environment. This functioning evaluates the social, occupational, economic, sexual and familial areas. Objective: The objective of this study was to establish the association between schizophrenic patients' psychosocial functioning according to their alcohol use and the severity of schizophrenia. Methodology: Eighty schizophrenic, psychiatrically stable, subjects were selected during a 14-month period of time. All of them were submitted only once to the Psychosocial Functioning Scale (PFS), the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI), the Positive and Negative Symptoms Scale (PANSS) and the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). These scales were used in order to confirm the schizophrenia diagnostic and its severity, to measure the psychosocial functioning of this population, to identify early on problems related to alcohol use and to perform an alcohol use/dependency diagnostic on those individuals who met such diagnostic criteria. A Chi squared, Mann-Whitney's U, the t test, Kruskal-Wallis and the one-way ANOVA were used for statistical analysis purposes. Results: Seventy-one percent of the subjects were males and 29% females; 87% were single and 70% were unemployed or had an informal job. Thirty-one years was the average age among males and 34 among females. Subjects started suffering schizophrenia when they were between 12 and 30 years (average: 23 years; SD: 6.36), and 94% of them started using alcohol while they were at this very same age range (average: 20 years; SD: 4. 98). Seventy-six percent of the subjects presented a schizophrenia evolution of less than ten years. Comparing alcohol use with psychosocial functioning according to the AUDIT, the social and familial were the more affected areas, both of which showed statistically significant differences. As to the period of evolution of schizophrenia and psychosocial functioning, the 16-20 year group was the one which showed less satisfaction. Schizophrenia severity did not show any statistical significance when compared to the type of alcohol use. Conclusion: Results from this research are similar to those from other Mexican and international studies which have found out that schizophrenia onset is more common during teenage, that more men than women are affected by the condition and that most subjects suffer it first when they are between 16 and 25 years. On the other hand, it has been found out that alcohol use is starting at increasingly early ages, with men being the main users. Such an association has lead many researchers to think that schizophrenia onset is highly associated with alcohol use, be it because the negative symptoms of schizophrenia promote the initial use of alcohol or because alcohol use triggers the early onset of schizophrenia. In this study it was not possible to prove such an hypothesis given the reduced number of subjects in the sample. This was not either the main objective of the study and given the fact that some other type of methodology is required to identify such an association. However, it is clear that there is a high non-diagnosed comorbidity between schizophrenia and alcohol use which, as a result, is not treated and translates, ultimately, into a bigger impairment of the psychosocial functioning. Among the scales employed, AUDIT is an excellent screening instrument to detect subjects at risk of becoming alcoholics and to identify incipient alcohol use patterns and the problems associated with it. Thus, it is suggested that it could be used both in first and third level hospitals. Finally, although no statistically significant results were found out in any of the variables, there is enough evidence where the association between schizophrenia and alcohol leads to an accumulated effect influencing the psychosocial functioning impairment. In the light of this, it is suggested that clinicians inquire about alcohol use in patients showing some mental pathology to research more in depth the schizophrenia-alcohol comorbidity phenomenon and its association with psychosocial functioning so as to design adequate prevention, treatment and rehabilitation programs for the schizophrenic population.

Tendencias de la conducta antisocial en estudiantes del Distrito Federal: mediciones 1997-2003

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Abstract: Introduction. This paper analyses the evolution of antisocial behavior within the context of representative cross-sectional studies in student population from Mexico City. Surveys with students have collected data about substance use and related factors. The latter is associated with antisocial behavior and delinquency eating disorders, risk sexual behavior, and suicide attempt. Statistics on younger offenders show an increased number of subjects presented before law institutions, meaning that they have been prosecuted somehow (there were 2623 cases in 1999, and 3506 in 2003). At the same time, there is a decrease in the age for committing these faults which are becoming more serious; a larger number of homicides, raping, and carrying weapons have been reported. The objective of this paper is to present tendencies of antisocial behavior through data obtained from three different representative surveys in junior high school and high school students from Mexico City (1997, 2000, and 2003). Surveys were held by the Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente and by the Secretaría de Educación Pública. Method. The analysis unit considered for this study was the student himself coming from state and private schools. Three levels were studied: junior high school, high school, and technical schools. Sample design was planned based on the evaluation of drug use tendencies in the students from this population, determining the level of contribution of each district in the city. Schools were randomly selected in each of the 16 districts. Sample design was stratified, two-staged, and in clusters. Stratification variable was the level of the school. First selection unit was the school, and second was the school group. Sample was self-weighted using the city district as the weigh variable. Three probabilistic samples were obtained, representing each one of the districts and education level: 1997 sample, N=10173; 2000 sample, N = 10578; 2003 sample, N=10659. Outcome rate in each measure was 97% in 1997, 95% in 2000, and 98% in 2003. Age mean in the three samples was 14.6 years old, and equivalence men-women was similar in the three studies. Questionnaire used has been validated before, and its basic indicators have maintained consistency through different researches. Socioeconomic and antisocial behavior data were used for this study. Two factors previously obtained were used. The first one was called Violence and Thieving Behaviors, this one includes picking things worth 50 pesos or less, taking things from a store without paying for them, damaging other people's property, punching or hurting someone, being involved in fights, and using firing objects. The second factor was called Serious Antisocial Behaviors, and it included: picking things worth 500 pesos ormore, breaking locks, attacking someone using an object or weapon, selling drugs, and using a knife or gun to rob someone. These factors have been already used and have shown good consistency. The survey operative design included a main coordinator, supervisors, and pollsters who were trained on conceptual issues about addiction, project background and objectives, instrument use, instructions for interviewing, and group selection. Emphasis was made on proper instructions for subjects, as well as remarks for anonymity and confidentiality in handling information. Inconsistent questionnaires were corrected or eliminated. Intelligent software was used for registering data, which verified that the answers were coherent. Results. There was a 2% increase in antisocial behaviors among students between 1997 and 2000; the most notorious raise was observed in behaviors from factor Violence and Thieving, which fluctuated between .57% and 1.8%. From 2000 to 2003 there was a raise of 6.7% for any antisocial behavior, and the increase was again more notorious in Violence and Thieving (6.5%). There were minor increases in the second factor, though these were important. For instance, picking things worth 500 pesos or more, and attacking someone had a bigger raise in 2000 and 2003, while breaking locks had its bigger raise between 1997 and 2000. No changes were observed for selling drugs and using a knife or gun to rob someone. There was a 2.47% increase for any antisocial behavior in men between 1997 and 2000, basically in the factor Violence and Thieving. From 2000 to 2003 this increase raised to 7.36%, observed again in the Violence and Thieving factor. In the case of women, there was only an increase in two behaviors between 1997 and 2000: picking things for 50 pesos or less and breaking locks. From 2000 to 2003 there was an important increase in behaviors pertaining to Violence and Thieving (5.71%), to be involved in fights had the highest increase. Between 2000 and 2003, women participated in more serious acts. The proportion of students behaving antisocially was calculated considering the districts. The district of Tlalpan had the only increase observed between 1997 and 2000. Significant raise was observed in almost every district (except for Cuajimalpa and Gustavo A. Madero) from 2000 to 2003. Venustiano Carranza, Benito Juarez, Iztacalco, and Alvaro Obregon had the biggest increase. Variations are the same for both factors. Discussion. This study allows to see the changes in antisocial behavior rates in Mexico City students from 1997 to 2003. Slight variations were found in some behaviors between 1997 and 2000, there were no modifications in others. However, there was an important raise from 2000 to 2003, which is bigger if compared to 1997. Increase in antisocial behavior is similar for men and women, although proportion is unequal yet; almost two men for every woman. When considering district as a control variable, Benito Juarez and Tlalpan show the higher prevalences on any antisocial behavior. This situation is similar for Violence and Thieving. In the case of Serious Antisocial Behaviors, Venustiano Carranza and Azcapotzalco had the higher prevalences. It is important to fully understand the reasons of adolescents for behaving antisocially. Apparently the conditions facilitating this type of behaviors are not only related to marginalization and social disadvantage, but to others, such as new interaction ways, which favor the search for exciting sensations and hiding from supervision. This includes involvement in risk behaviors, such as unsafe sexual intercourse, drug use, violence, and burgling. It is necessary to go deeper into these new forms of antisocial behavior and to work more in prevention as an attempt to counteract present tendencies of this issue.